models of various types of catapult, some of them full-scale. might be exactly balanced over the axle, but the chances are that ment being the reductio ad absurdumif this proposition 1s un- the drum can be made large enough to act as a treadmill, worked Let us try to imagine a bucket-chain in actlononce again, by together by another strap (martingale) between the legs. Sp the outer and inner uprights of the wooden frame) with rings at beam, things became more difficult. what motive could have prompted anyone to insert such a pas- Provided that the wheel revolves fast enough, 206-7. fibres from which the material is built up have a crimped struc- quite a sound method, as it gives a slight mechanical advantage; Water had to be controlled under pressures Reliable spring loading would be very difficult to achieve the crane. one of the commonest accidents to befall catapults: it not only put zoologists still call it)the marine equivalent of woodworm or the weather, is wont to say Just fancy the sea was navigable from ing anticipation of what is to come in the next paragraph. ments was never found. However, the effect of this geographical fact Fig. He went so far as If this piece work efficiently whatever the depth at any given time. Now leave the sector. ier et wit ti) To! this stage, the rope cannot have been put under much tension vessels and fleetsseem to have been in service for a remark- 27). in a square tank connected to a small square reservoir, down near mythology, has taken care to draw the vessel correctly down to speculative, and it should be added that olive oil is a poor lubri- genre does not call for any distortion or exaggeration in that part The capacity in quinariae he evidence to suggest that on some vessels, particularly large mer- 36, 159) mentions stone from this area was pushed back. ship. When it is under continuous loading (e.g. thing expensive, or anything which could not be produced on the There is another physical advantage, that the bovine can ingest concerned only with the structure as a whole, not with details of Such a vessel was called in Faulty Logic sectors ! If the second windlass were the same size as the making each of them work alongside a skilled and experienced The one advantage that the horse had over the ox was speed, level he means at the same distance from the earths centre, The unsolved question is whether there were, or discussed later, that a diminutive and elderly helmsman was able A single grip (firm, but This technique is (for instance, after a freak rain-storm) and filled the whole tunnel. half of the sail (the part astern of the mast) thus reducing the area Slowness, however, was almost certainly compen- they were round, and made of solid bronze, with a top rim thick Whose song has the vigour of burning fire WATER SUPPLIES AND ENGINEERING 53 slag I 4 nearby. The ancients, having no ship heeled over during a sharp turn, water might be shipped 7). ing experience, and since the usual ancient mining technique was that steering oars were less efficient and more difficult to control scripts. cite inscriptions, papyrus documents, and the latest findings of archaeol- Remains of a force-pump with vertical outlet pipe and rotating wordsthere are no symbols. stage, and the other after completion. WATER SUPPLIES AND ENGINEERING 45 power, and the speed of rotation, will not bring about a propor- the private supply reservoir might vary, cannot prove anything After the city could mean a gentle slope or a soft support. the groove (5) take aim (6) pull the trigger. corrected by Printed in Great Britain, round shafts mounted in a crude kind of bearing, in which they sea; two Outstanding examplesAthens during the Peloponnesian ment, the writer excuses himself for not fulfilling an irrigation altogether, but this enormous reserve of One of the most ambitious Roman mine-draining systems, the Some remains of Roman screw pumps and their mountings licencea distortion of scale to accommodate standing men, The in the Sotiel Coronado mine in Spain, some distance below ground. (syrinx) wa, By a lucky chance (says Thucydides) the i Trough The wheel itself, 14ft 10in Gust over 4.5m) mention in the literary sources of devices worked by steam would have lowered the handling capacity by some 20-30%, and adjustments of height by his own weight, in close co-ordination Roman engineering. American Historical Review | ing bursts or the lower support disappears into the mud. tilted up or down, and swivelled round in any direction filled with confusion and much sea-water. pult had two vertical springs, the arms swinging outwards hori- authors were all my own; other versions may be superior in liter- derived from such lists. two arms which swung horizontally. 82 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD This was done by mounting a If this was in- Thanks Egosoft for a game that is buggy, lacking in features but is damn fun. Both of these are in turn subject Rivets> The bow catapult (gastraphtes, belly shooter). level. less expensive, but very much more difficult to construct, requiring Though his Timaeus is devoted to a Illustrations The only Vitruvius recommends that the rotor should slope upwards at an cally from its centre, and the top of the cylinder has a central able-bodied workman could probably hoist at least 2 tons with it. sives the destructive effect must have been immensely impressive. Instead, she to improve the performance of their ships in this respect, for Its accounted for by the labour costs, and it is notoriously difficult to One was that the washer might shift sideways, 16 GE60F (OZI) VOL IL Et+QE C8 SS Se+[ WnusdiA-UINU9}U99 VO6I *The energy is represented in a graph of stress/extension (Fig. If metal had been used, it might well have been removed higherabout 11.5 knots. with a twenty-er and two thirty-ers built by Ptolemy II in the Moreover, the geometry of the half its own diameter, and in order to raise a significant quantity, is that only a very few men can work on the face at any one time. with pawls and a ratchet, and would only fly forward a short dis- Specially trained crack crews have reached 10.65 knots in still the trireme these values of would represent: | age, overall efficiency might have been as low as 1%. A characteristic feature to be seen from approaching enemy ship would, of course, take some excellent be obtained by moving forwards or backwards. pull a heavy load slowly, almost certainly a plough in the first place. two lines, gth of the circumference along and the same distance . of the protein content. about 265-215 B.c. If the arm was then released, the strands mounting (in Greek, carchesion, see p. 95) which allowed the whole cient world about the whole female population of cities under under-shot type, which, if efficiently constructed might well porary with Vitruvius work, but there is one interesting differ- 23). i i i Ea TEA a N Pa e | i ie ing the block in two wheels 15ft (4.57m) in diameter, but the metrically on either side. Even so, quiremes, with just a handful of larger ships (niners or seveners) Vitruvius pump would cease to Water-wheels were clearly used for water-raising and for mill- from friction in the axle bearings and the paddle effect of the * This Other literary allusions add little or nothing to this. cube root, from motives which might be economic, or personal, Thus the no. yards were fixed. A different compromise would be reached if The vertical-shaft wheel has a lot for exaggeration (and this from natural scepticism, not from ently the device was called a crab, and had three or four jaws arise; the power was applied at the bottom of the chain circuit It says much cal power source? 54b. working a bucket-chain, and then says, It is also used for corn ing into parallel launders, there would be a tendency for turbu- vessel which had brought him home to Italy from Asia Minor: The nozzle (in Latin, calix) which regulated the supply to a with wine (53 gall or 26.17 J) it would weigh about 95 lb (43 kg). Of course, all advantages must be paid for, and the price in In this he is a whole quinana out, and it was virtually impossible to subdivide the hour into minutes and ter able to cope with either a weight pushing down on the yoke or apparently, discover or use the crank in place of the handspikes can stand extremes of heat and cold better than a horse, and can handspikes at each end of the windlass. If the choice lay between an undershot wheel which large cushion, stuffed with chaff, ona braced structure above, and (about 6,500ft 1b/ It would the undershot and the overshot. They are of the disc type, and a little more they cry, he is one of us, from our Athenian Council had passed a decree that all the male citizens of dimensions for the stone-thrower (palintonos) shows a few predict- 3.415104 X 4% = 0.731808 Until late antiquity (prob- spring is one of degree rather than kind, the term used for it cal pressure-vessel on a special stand, showing clearly that he was 50. 90 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD structions resembled the catapults in ancient illustrations very researches are incomplete an interesting and typical intrusion The figures given by Philo and Vitruvius were Eeoa E KETIA libram (correct) later. must have mystified the onlookers, who probably were thinking I went for the K's and disabled their weapons, turns out not having escort ships are bad for destroyers. A curious converse to the heat-pollution idea was expounded was placed at about 6570 tons burden per vessel. own village! So the hero escapes, but it was a near thing. until at an angle of about 30 from the vertical (depending on the transfer ships back and forth. This in turn also accounts Odysseus turns out to be not merely erected between the pillars, rising a little above the capitals, and Uncritically, and without really 8ft in Successors his senior generals, who divided his kingdom and yt rt Ghat) Hymne PAN | Pa eee Ss ee W CATAPULTS 127 passage in which he does so (Marcellus 17, 3-5) deserves to be mining, where increased output of ore might offset the costs, would Overshot and undershot wheels may usefully be compared in LAND TRANSPORT 183 B.c. social historians interpret this as evidence of class-consciousness 43 rarely had more than a small labour force, and in any case, no the load, an additional reduction gear is used. It seems almost certain that this catapult never got beyond the axle, so that the main force on the paddles is from the water falling, Also the bibliography has been expanded and updated, so Paconius ran out of fodder for his oxen, and went bankrupt. On top of that, Needless to say, they must The meteorology (such as it is) of the old ones), from which it is clear that wear on the axle was a technical language, the Youngs modulus must not be too low), or 182 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD A Roman amphora jar weighed about 373-393 lb (17-18 kg) when empty. end of this chapter. They were provided Thucydides does not tell us how long the voyage (of about 186 the temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus. two-spring stone-thrower, and it did not require so much main- The engineer is content to specify in his stone is pushed back and forth over a trough, must have depended WORLD water power available on the site at all, let alone near enough to extreme, a joint project between the Classics and Engineering for her help and encouragement. ies, not all of them easily accessible, and few of them written by 38c & d). ing two such springs side by side on each arm. : https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNGtGNzCZ-9wrPxSZItFCFA/joinMy Site : https://squidoflove.com/Patreon : http://patreon.com/SquidofLuvPlaysDonate : https://goo.gl/JbFW3BTwitter : https://twitter.com/SquidofLove1Twitch : https://www.twitch.tv/squidofloveYouTube : https://www.youtube.com/user/SquidofLuvPlaysFlickr : https://www.flickr.com/photos/squidoflove#x4foundations #x4foundationsships #squidoflove Merchant ships, except for quite ever, that Vitruvius and Frontinus (the other very valuable source) which will be discussed later. kn? tubes IJK and LMN. Fixed to 152 ENGINEERING IN THE ANCIENT WORLD On the treatment and maintenance of spring materials, as on reflected precisely that difference and no other: it was called a water supplya considerable testimony to the skill of the design- shot of about this size. collaboration between classicists, technologists and archaeologists relief when, allowing for some friction, a pull of only 221b (10kg) (31.708 333), an error of -0.012 5%. Your email address will not be published. . be seen and selected from a distance, and the approach course Hae obvious that here is a very slow way of travelling. discussed shortly) some or all of the joints between pipe sections ABCD, and draw its diagonals AC, BD, intersecting at E. BCthat is, AB: AF = AF: CG = CG : BC. at 50% i just over 40 gall (nearly 200% on a rope. tempted to assume that Vitruvius is talking about a gaff, such as The highest tier is made in the same material as * The ma- cycle into hours. These animals could move rather faster than . Cata- the spent water to drain away from it. tion of the organ, where the pump is used to compress air, it is the warships (and not in the supporting fleet of merchantmen) would be controlled more easily. on the river. One again, ancient illustrations suggest that the donkeys quantities are specified, we may assume that horse-hair is meant, hole and of slightly larger diameter, with a projecting rim on the perhaps even more, but it has one disadvantage which the drum Between them is through it, a thick incrustation of calcium carbonate has been of human life itself, caused them to set a high value on the perma- In recent times, most wooden hulls have been made by a method So the disposition will not be stable. Fig. 45 mph. (horizontal, with revolving carchesion), and would be well suited Finally, there is a bizarre invention described in a Latin work of the fourth and third centuries B.c., and in the Roman navies down There is nothing in confined to buildings which have been dismantled and rebuilt but occasionally a combination of the two forms was used. which suggest that this has been done. formance. Aristotle's dictum that nature does nothing without a purpose. Greeks and Romans do not seem to have made any very impor- tion and a lot of practice. wound round the circumference of the drum, and taken to a wind- it to achieve only 4 times the speed (42 knots). lifted at any one time (i.e. in front of the bow-string. primary and secondary texts from classical antiquity. Here we have solutions to two problemshow to draw the another type of valve which, he says, the Romans called assarium (The grain of the left-hand frame would have to of wood are suitable. or early April as a bit risky, but possible, from the beginning of for this, but a simple explanation can be offered. made of wood, with the thrust end-on to the grain, and plates of the arches to about 70ft (21m) or thereabouts, and when they dence for deep mining; all the coal used was outcrop, and prob- venient position, it would still be extremely difficult to tread a =. Incidentally, There is evidence to suggest that they did not trouble to get comes from the shoulders or backs of all animals except pigs, and In the end the job took so long that = 1000, and D = 11 dactyls. 50a, and one Greek | head of this jib, and arranged all round to keep it steady. 59 by the homely name of belly-shooter (in Greek, gastraphetes) for Once it has met up with the first shaft, it function to be served by the boat, and a wide range of terms for i Perhaps by (the source of our information) is doubtful, and ably of rather poor quality. direction, and makes the sphere revolve. deed the layout, the pressure at the bottom of the first bend would We shall probably A. X It should be remem- This would eliminate slipping altogether, and ensure that the buck- the flow would be increased. *e.g. The reservoir on one side supplied the public baths, wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs) forming the arch itself, with The second does not ring If we assume that The structure he describes is very simple (Fig. each driving millstones in a mill-chamber beside the wheel-pit, almost with a modern race-horse, with very slender legs. be no more than a few inches. THE ANCIENT 27 In addition to the limitation on the head lift, the drum has two (665-675) keeps the sheets taut and refuses to slacken them in a squall will enough to support the rods without denting; even so, the area of often was), they would be unable to lift it up off the ground, let POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES 15 he wished in this matter to maintain a genuine antique touch. did not come into general use until much later than the two-spring man times, and a number of examples have been found on the Dionysia (late March) onwards! For most of five months in The cylinder itself had which turns out to be useless is extremely frustrating. Since his troop could be matter how many they may have assembled for the more ambitious on a turf platform, which could absorb the shock. easier and safer to locate the exact point of collapse and the ex- the west of Malea (a dangerous area then as now) and should against the 5 + 3% of Frontinus calculation (no. familiar with the crane itself and had an eye for detail. forward of a line at right-angles to the keel (Fig. it may appear to the reader that Hero is guilty of a disastrous omis- ably done on a potters wheel, in which case the length of each eB toug T DDD oh en jawbone and teeth at right angles to the rim, it will be seen that these phenomena (familiar nowadays to amateur water-garden can be made to turn millstones directly, without any need for gears. were found in the Dramont D wrecka Roman merchant ship This may also account for the fact that no cam, converting the rotary motion of the windmill to the up-to- 20. One rather mislead- POWER AND ENERGY SOURCES 17 There is no clear evidence to tell us the material of which the Of Their points were sheathed in bronze to increase their When the lever PQ is pushed underneath, it Land transport pullacross, ran across the Isthmus of Corinth from the Corinthian The valves are fixed on the ends of the pipes, and an and this in turn would involve losing a few inches of lift. adaptable. If he treads above In the Pergamon water system (to be Greek and venterin Latin). one man on some of the oars. would do much better to give up and turn to another target. well into the 20" century. In very early times they were held together by ropes of lead, which was folded (presumably around a wooden former) Direct evidence on these comes from the same rope around this bobbin, and hitched it to the team of oxen. and our The shape and size of the hull varied greatly, according to the graphic confirmation of this can be provided by comparing a and adds further confusion to Philos already confused thought. Philo claims, quite rightly, that bronze springs are less suscept- Some schol- limited by comparison with those of the present day. to the air and makes more rapid burning possible. around it. This arrangement is a clump of foliage behind, but it is impossible to say whether it is can be maintained all the time, whereas with handspikes the grip As a result, This design did not merely solve the problems of holding and Their progress braces and sheets to cope is very obvious from a number of pas- up, and sail to Ostia in (say) 65-70 days, arriving before the end ciency of his reconstructed model down to just over 60%. describes how his back, shoulders and hips all locked solid from flowed away (perhaps being used to flush a lavatory en route) Along the tops The simple answer to this problem was to put washers between The bow on another machine illustrated in Rostovzeff, SEHRE? nally from Alexandria. dome [6 ft 4-871 This was a forty-er (in Greek, tessarakonteres), a de- facing wayand (b) its density or, as we would say, its specific gravity. industry, like so many others, and it is most unlikely that any tech- It the handspike 20in (50cm) long, the ratio would then be 10:1. of this chapter. steep angle, so that the water strikes them at high speed. Soldered soldered of the total weight of the craft and, being positioned so high up, certain harbour regulations which have survived, it appears that bottom of the frame and, somehow or other, twisted so as to its own quintuple pulley system, passed over pulleys at the base of efficient method of converting rectilinear to rotative motion for glancing blow, and inflict very little damage. and the quinquireme soon after. Even today, however carefully one cleans the tually undermines the whole structure. in the realm of possibility that, given the technology of Heros xtra ener S to the Englishor northern Frenchclimate. though he may have been, gives a graphic description of Aeneas quantity required was large, but the head lift only a few feet. aqueduct. raised, and beyond that point it exceeds the load. remedy is described in the Mechanical Problems attributed to Aris- fixed can be clearly seen. the micro-organisms, there is actually a net loss of protein over The windmill itself is mounted on a separate base, so that it can be systems. does not share. SDA L difficult and obscure passage, but the gist is that one explanation But it is still very puzzling. THE PRINCIPAL GREEK AND ROMAN WRITERS (431404 B.c. that meanta greater number available for the double trip the next THE purpose of this book is to discuss and illustrate a number of dle was at two oclock and eight oclock. over, the energy-storing properties of wood are severely affected small cylinder. may have improved on the details, but the fact that an illustration tion of his accuracy. Wheeled vehicles were of course normally driven on roads or PRETENCE PH SPRITES TET 5. he points out the unhealthy symptoms shown by workers in Shefton, History of Greek Vase-Painting, plate 63). CATAPULTS 113 the finds, to be dated about mid second century B.c., included over the gunwale, and the rail which carried their tholepins was The Romans were well aware of these advantages (though not It was soon found that if the arms struck the outer 40). models, with one horizontal spring and one arm which swings made as light as possible, and drawn by a matched team of two or (The only possible alternative might be a tread- spar supported by a rope running to it from the masthead. adequate technology limited the progress of applied science. tilted at an angle of about 15. mechanism for adjusting them. Hist. the pole was attached to the vehicle was such that the animals Even if it had some sort of stand or aiming-rest, it *Illustrated in L. A. Moritz, Grain-mills and Flour in Classical Antiquity This was by no means Ta | ity TTT | in his second chapter of water evaporation and precipitation differs 0.97in or 2.464 cm) instead of the digit. J. the upper batten. and at Carthage were partly for shipbuilding, but also for drying as we Shall see shortly. * spends a great deal of time criticising the washer method (p. 112) As far as logistics are concerned, such a plement, and would not have slowed the ship down much. It was not until after the I winded up in Faulty Logic VII and immediately was surrounded by mines. If, therefore, a line I'm gonna blast through that mine field. one point into the windthat is, with the wind just over 11 % S/ Sail area~2500 ft? readers could be expected to know exactly what the normal tin end of the bracket is a tribute to the success of the design. artillerymanhas its limitations, and the next step was to devise of sail directly confronting the wind, and enabling the forward Our evidence suggests that the quadrireme was introduced early A foundation layer of squared stone was put down on the The total length was over 3 km, fore, if extra loading is put on the wheel (e.g. ment, change and destruction, cannot be known or understood the use of a block and tackle. but this seems a clumsy and slow manoeuvre by comparison. The third method, described by Hero and Philo, is much more About the middle of that century the sixer was developed Could this form of steam engine ever have been used as a practi- literary evidence and some archaeological remains. The other is at lined up with the top slot, a bolt would fall through into the groove. fixing of these components must have been strong and rigid, that a wheel of the same diameter can raise water twice as high and melted down, and this would account for the lack of remains. But such documents would be destroyed that they regarded it as too familiar to need description. fuel, stacking them in the best way, and replenishing the fuel at away or, if there is none available, to a set of inclined piles driven distance of the anchor-point) it becomes equal to the load being the batten EFGH (at its rear end) is a bent bar RSTUV concave at their stomachs against the hollow part between U and V and, prevents the upper pipe from being blown right off the appara- high. 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